Hellenistic Philosophy

The School of Athens is a renaissance painting by Raphael picturing the various philosophers of Hellenistic Philosophy

Good day Lovers of Wisdom, welcome to this topic entitled Hellenistic Philosophy! Hellenistic Philosophy refers to the period in the history of philosophy which comprises many different schools of thought developed in the Hellenistic world. We use the term “Hellenistic” to mean the spread of Greek culture to non-Greek lands being conquered by Alexander the Great in the 4th Century B.C. which began with the deaths of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. and of Aristotle in 322 B.C.). It was during this period that Epicureanism, Skepticism, Stoicism, and  Cynicism flourished. So, we have a new period in the history which naturally brings out a new perspective in life brought about by the changes in cultural, political and even spiritual landscape. So, what are you waiting for, join me and let’s enjoy learning together!

“I am indebted to my father for living, but to my teacher for living well.”~ Alexander the Great

Intended learning outcomes

At the end of this topic, you should be able to:

  1. Differentiate the ideas on human pleasure/happiness according to the perspectives of Hellenistic philosophies

Lessons for this topic

Epicureanism

Epicurus

Epicurus (341 – 270 B.C.) was an ancient Greek philosopher of the Hellenistic period. He was the founder ancient Greek philosophical school of Epicureanism. He studied Platonism and Atomism as a young student which became basis for his Epicureanism.  In Athens, Epicurus founded “The Garden,” a school named for the garden he owned that served as the meeting place of his Epicurean school, situated about halfway between the Stoa of the Stoic philosophers and the Academy of the Platonists.

Epicureanism was the first of the ancient Greek philosophical schools to admit women (as a rule rather than an exception). With its emphasis on friendship and freedom as important ingredients of happiness, the school resembled in many ways a commune or community of friends living together. Epicurus also instituted a hierarchical system of levels among his followers, and had them swear an oath on his core tenets.

Epicureanism teaches that the greatest good is to seek modest pleasures in order to attain a state of tranquillity, freedom from fear (“ataraxia”) and absence from bodily pain (“aponia”). Like Aristotle, Epicurus believed that the goal of life was happiness. He equated happiness simply with pleasure.

Epicurus directed that this state of tranquillity could be obtained through knowledge of the workings of the world and the limiting of desires. Thus, pleasure was to be obtained by knowledge, friendship and living a virtuous and temperate life. He lauded the enjoyment of “simple pleasures”, by which he meant abstaining from bodily desires, such as sex and appetites. He counseled that:

“A cheerful poverty is an honorable state.”

This belief provoked Epicurus to analyze the different kinds of pleasure. There are two kinds of desires, hence, two kinds of pleasure as a result of gratifying those desires:

  1. Natural desire.
    1. Necessary desire. Natural necessary desires must be satisfied and are usually easy to satisfy. They result in a good deal of pleasure and in very few painful consequences. Examples: desire for food and sleep.
    2. Unnecessary desire. The desire for sex is natural but usually can be overcome; and when it can be, it should be, because satisfaction of the sexual drive gives intense pleasure, and all intense emotional states are dangerous. Example: desire for sex.
  2. Vain desire. Vain desires do not need to be satisfied and are not easy to satisfy. Because there are no natural limits to them, they tend to become obsessive and lead to very painful consequences.

Notice that Epicurus’s definition of pleasure is negative; that is, pleasure is the absence of pain. It is this negative definition that prevents Epicurus from falling into a crass sensualism. However, some of his Roman followers interpreted “pleasure” quite differently, defining it as a positive titillation. It is because of these extremists that today Epicureanism is often associated with sensualistic hedonism. Sadly, in the succeeding Roman occupation, the Epicureanism philosophy became associated with the quotation:

“Let’s all eat, drink and be merry for tomorrow we will die…”

back to top

Skepticism

Skepticism is a Hellenistic school of philosophy which holds that one should refrain from making truth claims, and avoid the postulation of final truths. This is not necessarily quite the same as claiming that truth is impossible (which would itself be a truth claim), but is often also used to cover the position that there is no such thing as certainty in human knowledge.

Possibly the earliest Skeptic, Gorgias claimed that nothing exists; or, if something does exist, then it cannot be known; or if something does exist and can be known, it cannot be communicated. Gorgias, however, is known primarily as a Sophist rather than as a philosophical skeptic. Even Socrates claimed that he knew one and only one thing: that he knew nothing. Thus, rather than making assertions or opinions, he set about questioning people who claimed to have knowledge, ostensibly for the purpose of learning from them.

Hellenistic philosophy
Pyrrho

Pyrrho of Elis (360 – 270 B.C.) was a Greek philosopher considered the first Skeptic and was the founder of the Greek philosophical school of Skepticism. Frustrated with the assertions of the Stoics and other dogmatists who claimed to possess knowledge, and overwhelmed by his inability to determine rationally which of the various competing schools of thought was correct, he founded a new school in which he taught that every object of human knowledge involves uncertainty and that it is impossible ever to arrive at the knowledge of truth.

The main principle of Pyrrho’s thought can be expressed by the word “acatalepsia” which connotes the ability to withhold assent from doctrines regarding the truth of things in their own nature. He argued that:

  1. We only know how things appear to us, but are ignorant of their inner substance
  2. The same thing can appear differently to different people
  3. It is therefore impossible to know which opinion is right (the diversity of opinion among the wise, as well as among the vulgar, proves this)
  4. A contradiction may be advanced against every statement with equal justification and no assertion can be known to be better than another
  5. It is then necessary to completely suspend judgment by asserting nothing definite and never making any positive statements on any subject

By applying these ideas of what he called “practical skepticism” to Ethics and to life in general, Pyrrho concluded that the only proper attitude is “ataraxia” (which can be translated as “inner peace” or “freedom from worry” or “apathy”), which became the ultimate goal of the early Skeptikoi. He argued that, since nothing can be known, nothing can be in itself either good or evil, and it is only opinion, custom and law which makes it appear so. He said:

“Unhappiness is the result of not attaining what one desires (or of losing it, once attained); thus, the wise person, being free from desires, is also free from unhappiness.”

back to top

Cynicism

Cynicism is a school of philosophy in the ancient Greece, which holds that the purpose of life is to live a life of Virtue in agreement with Nature (which calls for only the bare necessities required for existence). This means rejecting all conventional desires for health, wealth, power and fame, and living a life free from all possessions and property.

The founder of Cynicism as a philosophical movement is usually considered to be Antisthenes (c. 445 – 365 B.C.), who had been one of the most important pupils of Socrates in the early 5th Century B.C. He preached a life of poverty, but his teachings also covered language, dialogue and literature in addition to the pure Ethics which the later Cynics focused on.

Diogenes

Antisthenes was followed by Diogenes of Sinope, who lived in a tub on the streets of Athens, and ate raw meat, taking Cynicism to its logical extremes. Diogenes dominates the story of Cynicism like no other figure, and he came to be seen as the archetypal Cynic philosopher. He dedicated his life to self-sufficiency (“autarkeia”), austerity (“askesis“) and shamelessness (“anaideia“), and was famed for his biting satire and wit.

Diogenes was nicknamed “the dog.” Legends have it that he lived in a barrel on the streets. He popularized the group of thinkers who became known as the Cynics, a term  taken from the Greek kunikos, meaning “dog-like.” Plato once described Diogenes as “a Socrates gone mad.” Diogenes was quoted saying:

“He has the most who is most content with the least.”

Cynicism preaches that in order to lead a good life, or one that is worth living, it is necessary to free oneself from the external restrictions imposed by society, and from the internal discontentment that is caused by desire, emotion, and fear. This can be achieved, he states, by being content to live a simple life, governed by reason and natural impulses, rejecting conventions without shame, and renouncing the desire for property and comfort. The following summarizes the beliefs of Cynicism:

  1. The goal of life is happiness, which is to live in agreement with Nature.
  2. Happiness depends on being self-sufficient, and a master of mental attitude.
  3. Self-sufficiency is achieved by living a life of Virtue.
  4. The road to Virtue is to free oneself from any influences (e.g. wealth, fame, power, etc) which have no value in Nature.
  5. Suffering is caused by false judgments of value, which cause negative emotions and a vicious character.

back to top

Stoicism

Stoicism is a school of philosophy which teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions in order to develop clear judgment and inner calm and the ultimate goal of freedom from suffering.

Stoicism is not just a set of beliefs or ethical claims, but rather a way of life, involving constant practice and training, and incorporating the practice of logic, Socratic dialogue and self-dialogue, contemplation of death, and a kind of meditation aimed at training one’s attention to remain in the present moment.

Zeno

Zeno of Citium (c. 334 – 262 B.C.) was a Greek philosopher considered the founder of the Stoicism school of philosophy. Zeno studied with a disciple of Diogenes of Sinope, the Cynic, and shared his no-nonsense approach to life. He preach to his students from a portico, or “stoa” hence, the philosophy stoicism was derived.

Zeno had little patience with metaphysical speculation and came to believe that the cosmos was governed by natural laws that were ordained by a supreme lawgiver. Man, he declares, is completely powerless to change this reality, and in addition to enjoying its many benefits, man also has to accept its cruelty and injustice. Man has been given a rational soul with which to exercise free will. No one is forced to pursue a “good” life. Zeno advocated that:

“Happiness is a good flow of life.”

To achieve this state of blessedness, one must free oneself from all worldly demands, particularly those of the emotions and of pleasure seeking. The stoic wise person is an ascete who has transcended the passions that create a disorderly condition in the soul (ascetic or hermit). The stoic has no interest in all those objects that in normal human beings excite the passions of grief, joy, hope, or fear.

In fact, a person can do nothing but conform to the grand design, and stoic wisdom consists in recognizing this truth. Fools are those who try to impose their own selfish desires on reality. This attempt results in unhappiness and unfreedom. For this reason, and because the stoics believed that the amount of time one spent in the enlightened state was indifferent, the stoics advocated suicide in certain circumstances in order to preserve the integrity and inner calm of the soul.

Three Notable Stoics
  1. Seneca (4–65 C.E.), a dramatist and high-ranking statesman;
  2. Epictetus (late first century C.E.), a slave who earned his freedom; and
  3. Marcus Aurelius (121–180 C.E.), a Roman emperor. Aurelius was the last of the so-called “good emperors.”

Isn’t it quite striking that a slave and an emperor could share the same philosophy of resignation?

back to top

Leave a Reply

Your email address will not be published.

This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Learn how your comment data is processed.